This article proposes a general theory of paradiplomacy based on Hans J. Morgenthau's classical realism (emphasizing emotions) and practices. It tests this theory on Canadian provincial international activities from 1945 to 2020. Morgenthau conceives of politics as a struggle for love and power that is universal but pluralistic in its social manifestations. Practices can be found everywhere, so variegated paradiplomacy practices are a global inevitability. The article argues that the provinces filter paradiplomacy through a distinct practice called the “diplomatic tradition of Canadian federalism” as one way of engaging in domestic power politics. The article distills the practice background into a three-part social mechanism—asymmetry, ambiguity, and accommodation—and in the case study confirms it using a version of process tracing and practitioner interviews. The article's theory is not only plausible; it is also necessary because the paradiplomacy field lacks a theory on which to found assumptions that can be integrated into IR paradigms and trajectories, such as emotions, practices, and the renewed interest in classical realism.
Policy implications
- Political leaders and scholars need to understand states from the inside out, given that paradiplomacy is increasing in intensity and extent globally and makes up a sizeable portion of international activity.
- Policy makers need to appreciate that paradiplomacy is not simply about the rational pursuit of economic interest but is driven by psychological –emotional longings for love and power that can be as intense for substates as for states.
- Researchers working on paradiplomacy or domestic politics should consider whether Hans J. Morgenthau's classical realism can offer convincing and meaningful explanations of the specific phenomenon that they are studying.
- State and substate leaders and officials who are preparing to work with a foreign substate should first gain a solid understanding of the distinct practice on which that substate's paradiplomacy is based.
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